During this series of posts, we will be looking at a range of beneficial organisms commonly known as bugs, critters or creepy crawlies, that can contribute to a healthy, productive and pest-free growing environment in your temperate garden. As well as identifying key species that serve as allies to our efforts in the garden, we will look at ways to attract and keep these organisms around.
During this post, we'll look at Megadrilacea, the earthworms. here's what Charles Darwin said about them 1881 "It may be doubted whether there are any other animals which have played such an important part in the history of the world as these lowly organized organisms."
So why are Worms so important and what makes them a garden ally?
There are many species of earthworms on our planet, each specie specially adapted to particular soils and particular areas of the soil. Their chief role is that of the decomposer, keeping nutrients flowing through life and death, but all play other very important roles in our ecosystems.
Plumbing and Ventilation
Worms spend most of their life tunnelling through the soil. In a healthy soil the top 20 cm or so contains an extensive network of such tunnels created by the worms. This is also the layer of soil that contains the majority of plant roots. Plant roots need a good supply of oxygen to maintain growth and the worm tunnels allow air to circulate freely among the roots ensuring a good supply. At the same time the tunnels allow the delivery of rain water into the root zone whilst allowing the excess water to drain away.
As well as helping the plant roots directly, this aeration encourages the decay of dead material which releases nitrates and other plant nutrients into the soil.
Mining and Redistribution of Minerals
Certain worms are active deeper than the top 20cm of the soil. This deeper tunnelling provides another major contribution of the earth worm. Their vertical movement through the soil can bring nutrients washed deep into the soil by rainwater, where they are unavailable to the majority of plant roots, to upper levels within reach of the plant roots.
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Fertilisers
The worm casts that are often seen on the surface of the soil are also deposited throughout the soil profile. These castings are rich in minerals. In fact, the worm castings are of such benefit to plant growth, that breeding worms to harvest these castings has become a very successful biological method of supplying fertiliser, known as vermicomposting. Some of the benefits of vermicompost include,
Microbial activity in vermicompost is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and organic matter that the worm ingests. This microbial activity ultimately provides mineral nutrients to plants.
Improves water holding capacity of the soil
Enhances seed germination, plant growth, and crop yield
Improves root growth and structure
Eisenia fetida
I use worm castings mixed with river sand 50/50 for the nursery plants we produce here. Its a great medium providing water retention, slow release fertilisation and keeps the young plants healthy and pest free.
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Where you will find worms in your garden ecosystem.
There are some 3000+ named species of earthworm on this planet, researchers have broken them into three categories, largely descriptive of their habits in the soil. These three categories are Endogeic, Anecic and Epigeic.
Endogeic worms build complex lateral burrow systems through all layers of the upper mineral soil. These worms rarely come to the surface, instead spend their lives in these burrow systems where they feed on decayed organic matter and bits of mineral soil. They are the only category of worm which actually eat SOIL and not strictly the organic component. Endogeic worms tend to be medium sized and pale coloured and make great miners and re-distributors of valuable plant minerals
Anecic worms such as Lumbricus terrestris build permanent, vertical burrows that extend from the soil surface down through the mineral soil layer. It is not unusual for these burrows to reach a depth of 2 meters or more. The anecic species feed in decaying surface litter, so come to the soil surface regularly, which leaves them exposed to predators. These worms require a stable burrow environment in order to thrive. In the absence of this burrow, anecic worms will neither breed nor grow. There deep burrows contribute greatly to the redistribution of plant minerals
Epigeic worm are the guys used in vermicomposting systems, like Eisenia fetida. In nature epigeic worms live and feed in the top soil and duff layer on the soil surface. These small, deeply pigmented worms have a poor burrowing ability, preferring instead an environment of loose organic litter or loose topsoil rich in organic matter.
How to encourage earthworms
Worms like the type of soil that the majority of our fruit and vegetable crops like i.e not too acidic, not too alkaline, moist but not bone dry or sopping wet. If your soil is of moderate pH and moistness you will almost certainly have a healthy population already. If you do not have many earthworms in your soil, introduce some of the practices described below. It is surprising how quickly they build up in favourable conditions.
Have plenty of worm food available
Many worms eat dead or decaying plant remains, including straw, leaf litter and dead roots and will breed exponentially in the presence of such organic matter. Applying these materials to the surface of the soil i.e mulching, will increase your populations. Leaving the stubble and roots of annual plants to rot down in the soil will provide a good source of food. Permanent pasture such as a lawn provides plenty of organic matter as leaves and roots die and decay, worms love this kind of habitat.
Animal manure is also an attractive food for many species of earthworms. A pile of animal manure is a great way of attracting and breeding up worm populations in your garden. You may have to wait 3 months or more if using fresh manure before the worms start to move in. Do not use fertilisers and fungicides
Highly acidifying fertilisers such as ammonium sulfate and some fungicides reduce worm numbers. Researchers have found that orchards sprayed with bordeaux or other copper sprays contain few earthworms.
Keep soil moist
Worms can lose 20% of their body weight each day in mucus and castings, so they need moisture to stay alive. Ground cover such as pasture or shrubs and herbs reduce moisture evaporation as will applying mulch to the surface. In dry times some species burrow deep into the soil and are inactive until rain 'reactivates' them. Having a good steady supply of organic matter cycling through your soil and building humus will also provide higher water retentive properties in the soil.
Reduce soil compaction
It is difficult for earthworms to move through heavily compacted soil and no tread beds are a great way to avoid compaction. On larger sites it is necessary to keep vehicle and animal traffic to a minimum, especially in wet conditions.
Reduce cultivation
Digging the soil is obviously going to create disturbance and stress for our elongated comrades. No dig gardening , no till or minimal till agricultural practices are all excellent ways to keep the megadrilles around and happy. Researchers have found that after four years, zero-tilled paddocks had twice as many worms as cultivated soils. However, shallow cultivation may not affect worm numbers.
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For the last 9 years we have been experimenting with growing annual vegetables and herbs in polycultures.
Over the years I have stuck with what works, discarded what has not,
and now have what appears to me to be a good model of productive
ecological design. Productive in that it provides us with a harvest from
early spring until early winter, ecological in that it provides habitat
and food for many other organisms too.
Garden produce
This post is an introduction and overview to our Annual Herb and Vegetable Guild/Polyculture that we call Zeno. If you would like to find out how much food we have harvested from this polyculture and how much time it took to grow this food you can read the results of our polyculture study here
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Introduction to our Annual Vegetable and Herb Guilds
Our
Annual Vegetable and Herb Guilds are situated in six raised beds each
1m x 6m and approx 30cm high with 50 cm paths between the beds.
Surrounding the beds are a diversity of perennial plants including
herbs, shrubs and trees with some small ponds and various micro habitats
such as rock piles, old tree stumps and stick plies. These Six beds are
dedicated to annual herb and vegetable production and are the most
intensively cultivated areas in the garden providing us with the
majority of our annual vegetables.
The Annual Vegetable and Herb beds, early morning in mid spring.
Design
The 1m x 6m bed dimensions enable
access to the soil and plants without ever having to tread on the beds.
The beds are laid out on contour, lengthwise running east to west. This
provides the plants within the beds with the maximum amount of sunlight
and determines that rainfall will collect on the northern side of the
bed and permeate into the soil slowly rather than draining away. This
layout also enables us to flood irrigate the beds.
Irrigation
We
are fortunate to have access to water channeled from a nearby mountain
stream. When needed, we can divert the water into the garden where it
flows along the paths between the beds. We raise the water level to
15-20cm in any particular bed by simply placing a barrier (sack filled
with sawdust) at the end of a bed. The water is absorbed into the
soil and can travel vertically via Capillary Action.
Paths/irrigation channels in the garden
Management
In the early
Spring when the temperature starts to rise we place a 1m x 3m
bottomless chicken coop, with 8 hens inside, onto one half of a bed.
The chickens will stay there for 3 or 4 days and each day we throw them
in kitchen scraps, grain, straw and a few shovels of compost. The
chickens will relentlessly scratch among the soil and mulch picking off
the eggs of slugs and larvae, pupae of various arthropods. This helps to keep pest populations
down. They also forage for seeds in the soil and thereby reduce the
emergence of undesirable plants in the bed. The chicken's scratching
mixes up the organic matter we throw in daily and the birds contribute a ready
supply of droppings as they go.
Chickens at work
After 3 or 4 days we move the chickens
onto the next half of the bed and the process repeats. The area the chickens have just moved from is forked over, soaked well (or we wait for a rain) and then mulched with a few
buckets full of compost and a 20cm layer of Straw mulch (approx 3/4 of a
bale). The mulch provides a good habitat for Toads and Lizards (in the spring, summer and autumn) which
are well positioned to pick off any slugs that venture in for the young
seedlings.
Common Toad clearing out the slugs before the plants go in
Once mulched the stakes for tomatoes and beans are
put into position. Large reliable germinating seeds such as Beans and squash are sown directly into the beds by
pulling back the mulch and sowing into the soil. The other plants (see
below) are reared in pots and planted into the beds when approx 15cm
tall and when the weather is suitable. Any "weed" plants that grow
around the edge of the beds are cut back before they
set seed and used as additional mulch throughout the year.
"Weeds" that grow within the bed are treated the same way. Note that the
"weeds" are not uprooted only cut to ground level. The roots are
allowed to decay in the ground or left to regrow until they are again
ready to "chop and drop".
Around July the vegetable and herb
plants are all well established with little room for "weed" plants to
establish. The attention the beds require after July is mainly
irrigating and harvesting until October. When the last of the harvest is
out of the beds the stakes are removed and the chickens are brought in for another 3 or 4 days to
pick through the vegetation. None of the plant material is removed from
the bed, what the chickens leave behind is cut into small pieces and
applied to the surface as an overwinter mulch.
Plant Selection
The
plant selection differs slightly from bed to bed, all feature Tomatoes,
Beans, Basil and Squash. Below is a representation of one planting
scheme that shall be the focus of discussion here
Representation of Annual Vegetable and Herb Guild
This guild consists of 11 Tomato plants (a different cultivar
is usually planted in each bed) on the edge of the raised bed for easy
picking and to be in close proximity to the water when we irrigate. the
tomatoes are tied to round wood Hazel and Alder stakes approx 1.5m high and 6cm diamater. The stakes
provide perches for a number of bird species such as Red Back Shrike and Spotted Flycatcher that can be observed feeding from insects in flight around the beds as well as grubs and slugs on the bed surface and vegetation. The stakes also serve as snail traps. Snails will retreat up trees after a nights feeding in search for a shady nook to shelter from the coming sun. The snails climb the stakes expecting to find the shade and are easy to spot and remove in the morning.
Snail, just before becoming chicken food
In between the
tomatoes are planted 11 Basil - Sweet Genovese which are reported to
have a happy relationship with tomatoes in the garden as well as the
kitchen.
Beans are grown up wigwams forming large clumps of vegetation dripping with beans and flowers that tend to clamber onto the
surrounding plants by mid summer. The beans can potentially supply their own nitrogen via an association with Rhizobium bacteria that inhabit the soil. These
bacteria extract nitrogen from the atmosphere and deliver some of this
nitrogen to the roots of the bean. In exchange the bean provides the
bacteria with sugars produced via photosynthesis. At the end of
the season the nitrogen taken from the atmosphere by the bacteria and
fixed into the tissue of the bean plants is added to the soil when the
remains of the plants decompose in situ.
Polyculture crops
Tagetes erecta/petula
-Marigolds are sown throughout the bed, they repel and confuse pests
that are attracted to plants by smell and they attract hover flies, the larvae of which feed on aphids. They also provide a beautiful sunset orange to the
vegetable beds and the flowers can be used in teas and salads. Centaurea cyanus
- Cornflower was trialed in the guild for the first time this year. The
Cornflower attracts Bombus spp. (Bumble Bees) which also pollinate
tomatoes and squash, the flowers can also be used in salads and for
tea, specifically an ingredient of Early Grey tea.
Bombus spp. Bumble Bees- Tomato Pollinators
Crawling along the ground and between the plants are the
Squash. The broad leaves from these plants shade the roots of the other
plants and prohibit the emergence of "weeds".
The plants growing
around the edge of the bed are self seeded native plants, around 15 different species. Many of these plants are edible some can
fix nitrogen and others accumulate minerals from the subsoil. They also serve as soil stabilizers, provide a buffer between the tender young
plants and the slugs and snails, provide habitat and forage for beneficial
insects and provide a source of mulch and rabbit food. We simply chop and drop these plants before they produce seed.
Harvest
The
6 beds together will provide us with fresh tomatoes from Mid July -
Early October as well as 30 Jars ( approx. 30kgs) of preserved chopped
tomatoes and 6 Jars of sun-dried tomatoes.
Basil is also abundant and available fresh from Late April-October, we dry a jar or two and make a few jars of Pesto.
Fresh
Beans are available from May-October and we managed to harvest around 4
KG of dry beans this year as well as plenty of fodder for the rabbits
and seeds saved for next year. Each bed will provide at least two large
Squash.
It is possible to grow a succession of crops in the beds. The cold winters in Bulgaria restrict winter crops that can be grown, however, garlic planted in the Autumn can be harvested young (similar to spring onions) in April.
Garlic in Late Feb, planted in November.
The chickens, obviously, can not be used if you intend to have a yearly succession of produce within the guild and the quantity of compost added to the beds would need be higher to support the increased production.
If you would like to find out how much food we can harvest from this polyculture and how much time it takes to grow this food you can read the results of an Input/Output study here.
We're super excited about running the course and look forward to providing you with the confidence, inspiration, and opportunity to design, build and manage regenerative landscapes, gardens, and farms that produce food and other resources for humans while enhancing biodiversity.
You can find out all about the course here and right now we have a 20% discount on the full enrollment fees. Just use the promo code RLD2022 in the section of the registration form to receive your discount.
We are looking forward to providing you with this unique online learning experience - as far as we know, the very first of its kind. If you are thinking of reasons why you should do this course and whether this course is suitable for you, take a look here where we lay it all out. Looking forward to it!
The Organic Eprints archive is a tool to further develop research in
organic agriculture. The main objectives are to facilitate the
communication of research papers and proposals, to improve the
dissemination and impact of research findings, and to document the
research effort.
The first research paper I came across looked at the potential and limits of pesticide free apple growing by a self-regulating orchard set-up. You can read the full paper here in case you are interested, but you will have to wait until 2016 to find out the results.
We're super excited about running the course and look forward to providing you with the confidence, inspiration, and opportunity to design, build and manage regenerative landscapes, gardens, and farms that produce food and other resources for humans while enhancing biodiversity.
You can find out all about the course here and right now we have a 20% discount on the full enrollment fees. Just use the promo code RLD2023 in the section of the registration form to receive your discount.
We are looking forward to providing you with this unique online learning experience - as far as we know, the very first of its kind. If you are thinking of reasons why you should do this course and whether this course is suitable for you, take a look here where we lay it all out. Looking forward to it!
Autumn is a great time to plant out. The adequate rainfall and, consequently soil moisture levels at this time of year are perfect for the newly establishing plant roots. Although it may be cold above ground, the warmer soil temperatures make it possible for plant root growth to continue for longer and settle in before the spring growth bonanza.
Here's a step by step guide to planting out including a few things to consider before and after planting.
A few things to consider before planting
The best time to plant is when the soil is moist after a rain. If the soil is very wet, treading can cause compaction so avoid working on very wet soils particularly if you have clay.
In choosing the position for your plant bear in mind the light, fertility, water, temperature, space and community needs of the organism.
Consider the maximum size of the plant and how it will relate to the surroundings of the position you have chosen.
For plants that require cross pollination or are dioecious you will need to consider the pollination needs and make sure you have a pollinator in the vicinity.
If you are planting bare rooted plants ensure that the roots are not exposed to direct sunlight for too long and that they do not dry out.
Soak your plant roots well before planting. I have had no problems leaving the bare rooted plants submerged in water for up to 12 hrs. Cover so that sunlight cannot harm the roots when in the water.
Planting instructions
Dig your hole sufficiently big to allow some space around the root ball or roots i.e do not cram the plant into a small hole. Twice the diameter of your pot is adequate.
When digging, separate the top soil and sub soil layers. This is best achieved by placing two boards or tarps next to your hole. Dig the top soil out and pile it on one board/tarp, now dig the subsoil out and pile it on the second board/tarp.
Make sure the bottom and sides of your hole are not compacted from digging. If there are any smeared surfaces, scrap them loose with a fork. This ensures easier access into the soil for the establishing roots as well as providing good drainage and air spaces.
Water the empty hole well and allow time for the water to drain away. If your plant is in a container then rough up the sides of the root ball. The purpose of this is to ensure the fine roots make good contact with the soil when you infill the planting hole.
Due to the fast draining sandy loam I normally work with I plant a little lower than ground level to provide a dish for water to collect in. If you have poor draining soil (heavy clay) in an area of high rainfall and/or a high water table then you should consider planting higher then ground level.
If your planting site has a history of intensive application of fungicides you should re-establish the Mycorrhizal community. Mycorrhizas are symbiotic relationships between fungi and plant roots (the term means literally 'fungus root'). They are very common on crop plants as well as in wild plant communities, and in several cases they have been shown to be important or even essential for plant performance. The fungus obtains at least some of its sugars from the plant, while the plant benefits from the efficient uptake of mineral nutrients (or water) by the fungal hyphae. You can reestablish the Mycorrhizal community by simply adding half a spade full of soil from a healthy soil ecosystem nearby which should contain many of the beneficial fungal organisms. Mix the healthy soil with your pile of top soil.
Picture shows how the plant can draw upon a much larger pool of soil resources with the assistance of mycorrhizal fungi
Back fill the hole with the sub soil first, pack the soil in firmly around the roots or root ball and then add the top soil, again tampering the soil firmly to ensure good contact is made between soil and roots. The idea behind keeping the soil layers in order is to create minimum disturbance to the existing soil ecology. It may just look like plain earth but there are a myriad of organisms at work in there.
You can remove surrounding vegetation to approx 50cm radius of the plant stem so you end up with a circle of bare earth approx 1m diameter with your plant in the centre. If your plant is small then you can make this area smaller.
Imagine which way the water would flow across the land surrounding your plant and pile up the organic matter you have scrapped away from the surface along with any left over soil to create a barrier that will block the water from moving away from the plant. You want to keep the water around the plant where it can drain into the soil slowly and soak through to the roots below ground. It may be that on flat ground you need a barrier surrounding the plant creating a dish in which the water fills. If you have a low water table, lots of rain in your area and poor draining clay soil then this is not advisable.
Water the plant again applying more water then you think you will need and watch to see how well the water stays around the plant root zone. If you see the water escaping make some amendments to your barrier.
Once the plant is watered apply mature compost, approx 2-3 cm deep, covering the bare earth and place wet card board sheets or old clothing or cloth over the compost. If more than one piece of cardboard is needed overlap the cardboard so there are no gaps. This layer provides a barrier to prevent weed seeds in the soil from germinating and will decompose to add extra fertility to the soil. You can also use proprietary organic mulch mats, i've heard they last a few seasons.
Cover the cardboard/cloth/mulch with a further 3cm of well matured compost and then cover this with a 10cm layer of straw mulch (or other seedless mulch).
If trees are planted too deep or too much mulch is placed around the base of the tree, the constant moisture against the bark will create a condition called collar rot. Once the protective bark has rotted away, insects, micro organisms and fungi can easily enter the tree and begin to damage the plant. Make sure that the soil and mulch layers are not in direct contact with the bark around the base of the stem (the collar). Be sure to clear away the mulch and compost from that area so that you end up with a visible gap of at least 5 cm between stem and soil. You should check this every so often as the mulch usually makes its way back around the collar.
Collar Rot in a Apple Tree from - http://www.appleman.ca/korchard/treerots.htm
Aftercare considerations
If planted in Autumn it is likely that your new plants will not need watering until the mid spring. Keep an eye on your plant and water if you see/feel the soil below the mulch is dry. Its important to keep the plant from drying out in the first few years so plan time to monitor. 90% of all problems with newly-planted trees are because the steward didn't water them.
If planting a tree whip, according to some reports and contrary to popular belief, staking is not necessary. It is claimed to be counter productive and discourages a young tree from forming strong and secure anchor roots. Large container trees will however need staking.
Tree barriers are recommended to prevent herbivores committing planticide and according to the manufactures have many other purported benefits ;) I have never used these so cannot comment.
Check your plant from time to time and make sure the mulch has not made its way back around the stem collar. Keep the area weed free for a few years by topping up the cardboard and if you have planted a tree with high nutrient demands apply extra compost the following autumn.
Finally, enjoy your plant!
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The webinar will be hosted on zoom and you can book your place here - Looking forward to it!
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Protecting your garden from the wind will increase productivity and decrease workload. Often overlooked, it should be one of the first things you consider when designing your garden or choosing a site. Wind can be a major suppressant of plant growth desiccating the soil and increasing the transpiration
rates (water loss) of plants considerably. Strong winds can cause soil erosion, damage to plants and deter beneficial winged insects.
This tree signifies a prevailing wind coming from the right side of the picture. The growth directly exposed to the wind has been suppressed.
The advantages of a windbreak are many, however there are some disadvantages and if designed poorly one can create a bigger problem rather than finding a solution. So lets take a look at the potential problems first.
Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars, eBooks, and Online Consultancy. We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like :) It's your purchases that keep our Project going. Yuu can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our website here
Frosts
Poorly designed windbreaks can encourage frosts
and although generally are no problem during the winter as the plants have
adapted protection, late spring frosts can be a problem for sensitive
plants.
On a cold night the air nearest the ground is colder than
that up above. The wind mixes it up preventing the lower layer from
reaching freezing point. Sheltered areas are at more risk of frost than
exposed areas. A windbreak that stops wind completely can increase the
risk of frost and may even do more damage than good to the land it is
protecting. By thinning out the shelter belt as it develops we can
provide enough air flow to prevent this.
Root competition
The
plants used within the shelter belt will obviously require their share
of ground water and nutrients. The root system of certain
trees can be prolific and extend way beyond the visible above ground
spread. Care should be taken to avoid planting too close to the edge of
the shelter belt especially if heavy demanding crops are the intended
beneficiaries of the shelter belt. A good understanding of the root
systems of the plants you are using can ensure that invasive and heavy
feeding plants are kept away from the leeway edge. On larger sites the
inside edge is sometimes used for road access thereby making use of the land
that would otherwise give a poor return.
Pests and diseases
Consideration
should be given to the ecology of the windbreak and how this may
affect the surrounding areas. Certain trees will attract insects and
wildlife not necessarily beneficial to other plants and trees. For example, Prunus cerasifera - Myrobalan Plum makes a great windbreak tree, growing fast, tolerating drought and wind. However fruit from these trees, if not collected, may provide breeding grounds for large populations of fruit boring organisms, such as Grapholita funebrana (Plum Moth), to establish. Once established these organisms may spread to all other Prunus spp. in the garden and surrounding areas.
Shading
Bear
in mind the shadow the shelter belt will create when mature. The shadow cast, root competition and
the space taken by the belt itself will use a considerable amount of
viable land and this will need to be weighed up from the benefits gained
from a shelter belt.
As mentioned above, if designed well, these potential problems can be avoided leaving you with all the advantages of a windbreak such as
Protection of plants
Preventing/reducing, wind erosion
Reducing evaporation from the soil
Reducing transpiration from plants
Protecting buildings (reducing fuel and maintenance needs)
Want to learn more about Regenerative Landscape Design? Join The Bloom Room!
The Bloom Room is designed to create a space for more in-depth learning, for sharing projects and ideas, for seeking advice and discovering opportunities.
Ultimately, it aims to build a more intimate, interactive, and actionable relationship between members, a way for the Bloom Room community to support each other’s projects and learning journeys, and to encourage and facilitate the design, build, and management of more regenerative landscapes across our planet.
What you can expect as a member of the Bloom Room
As a member of the Bloom Room you can expect;
Access to an interactive forum where you can ask questions, direct what type of content you would like to see as well as share your own content and projects.
Monthly live session featuring general Q&A and tutorials on design software for creating and presenting polycultures.
Live session every month for members to showcase your projects, plans, designs, and gardens, with guest speakers from the community.
Future opportunities to join our Global Regenerative Landscape Design and Consultancy Service, with potential roles for those with the will and skill to join our design team.
Become a paid subscriber to our Substack to join. The annual subscription is currently $70 and the monthly subscription is $7 (monthly subscription excludes discounts for products and services) . You can join here, we look forward to meeting you!
Design - Where to Start
Before establishing a windbreak or shelter belt it is important to make a thorough study of the local winds and to plot on a map the direction and strength of the winds. Observing the wind
Wind can flow from any direction from horizontal to vertical depending on the energy balance. Wind can also curve or even rotate, a tornado for example. The units of measurement for wind speed is normally km/hr (kilometres per hour). Direction of wind is determined as a bearing angle from N. It is sufficient to use the eight points of the compass as a basis for determination of wind direction. Wind direction is noted from where it approaches, not where it is heading. There are many different types of instruments that measure wind speed and direction. However, the most common instrument used is known as an anemometer. It consists of three cups on arms that can rotate measuring wind speeds based on rate of rotations and a vane which indicates the wind direction.
Basic forms of estimating wind strength and direction.
The movement of fast moving low clouds normally indicates the approximate direction of the wind. Fog also will move in the direction of the wind.
Wind can raise dust and other light objects and therefore following this movement is yet another technique that can help you estimate the strength and direction of the wind. It also can reveal eddies created by objects as wind flows around them. The same technique applies for blowing snow but this normally requires higher wind speeds.
If you are around a body of water, it is possible to observe surface flow of wind based on the changes in water texture or ripples. Relatively stronger winds will disturb the water surface causing ripples. This region of ripples or darker texture can be observed moving as the wind progresses.
Signs and patterns to help you determine the direction of prevailing winds
Often you will find higher vegetation such as trees and tall shrubs seemingly leaning in one direction as shown in the picture above. This neatly signals the occurrence of a prevailing wind. Weather vanes and Wind Socks are easily accessible tools for measuring wind direction
Wind in mountainous areas
Wind traveling across a mountainous region will move in waves. When clear of obstruction the wind can continue its wave motion creating eddies in the open plains.
Motion of wind blowing across mountainous terrain
Design - Essential Points
Windbreaks can be effective on a small and large scale. They can be used for the temporary protection of annual crops and in this case can be as simple as a row of Helianthus tuberosum - Jerusalum artichoke planted to screen wind sensitive crop or they can be as complex as a multi-row perennial plantation of trees, shrubs ,herbs and ground covers to shield a broad acre plantation.
When considering windbreak or shelter belt planting, three zones can be recognized: the windward zone (from which the wind blows); the leeward zone (on the side where the wind passes); and the protected zone (that in which the effect of the windbreak or shelterbelt is felt)
A barrier should be established perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind for maximum effect. A checkerboard pattern is required when the winds originate from different directions. This applies mainly to broad acre sites.
The effectiveness of the windbreak or shelter belt is influenced by its permeability. If it is dense, like a solid wall, the airflow will pass over the top of it and cause turbulence on the leeward side giving a comparatively limited zone of effective shelter compared to the zone that a permeable shelter creates.
Optimum permeability is 40 to 50 percent of open space, corresponding to a density of 50 to 60 percent in vegetation.
It is generally accepted that a windbreak or shelter belt protects an area over a distance up to its own height on the windward side and up to 20 times its height on the leeward side, depending on the strength of the wind.
Gaps in the barriers should be avoided as they tend to channel accelerated wind through causing damage. If a gap is needed for access then further shelter should be provided to mitigate the wind passing through the gap.
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Design - Selection of tree and shrub species
When selecting plant species for windbreaks or shelter belts, start by observing plants in your area that are in windy positions already. Look for healthiest specimens and if possible propagate from these specimens or obtain the same specie from a nearby nursery. You may desire a larger diversity of plants within your design. When selecting plants the following characteristics should be sought:
Rapid growth
Straight stems
Wind firmness
Good crown formation
Deep root system, which does not spread into nearby fields
Resistance to drought
Desired phonological characteristics (leaves all year long or only part of the year).
There are a number of different ways to build a Shelter belt. It is generally accepted that multiple rows of plants provide increased protection. If using multiple rows, there is greater opportunity to obtain significant amount of food and resources from within the shelter belt as well as creating excellent habitat for a range of organisms many of which are beneficial allies to the gardener/farmer.
One method, pictured below, includes a windward row of small- med wind-firm trees with row of taller trees behind on the leeward row.
Windward Row
If the prevailing wind is blowing from the north then the windward row should be established first as the faster growing central trees will reduce light availability. The plants in this row need to be somewhat shade tolerant, fast growing and wind firm. Plants already growing in windy positions around your site should be first choice. A selection of nitrogen fixers, evergreens and wildlife plants should be selected. This layer needs to provide a lower screen for the higher canopied next layer so should consist of bushy trees and shrubs that fill out low to the ground.
The leeward row should consist of fast growing taller trees and include nitrogen fixers , conifer species and tree’s that sucker freely. This area can provide coppice wood for fence posts or fuel and consist of upper canopy fruit trees such as White Mulberry-Morus alba and Hackberry-Celtis occidentalis.
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